Florida's springs rival its beaches as the state's most spectacular natural features and 
as objects of public fascination. While their importance as water sources was recognized 
and influenced human settlement even in pre-historic times, over the centuries Florida's 
springs have taken on much broader significance for their scenic, recreational, scientific 
and, supposedly, medicinal attributes.  Ponce de Leon seems to be dubiously credited with 
discovering half the springs in Florida in his search for the 'fountain of youth." More 
likely, they were happened upon by various explorers and seftlers, who found them 
sufficiently impressive to spread their fame and rouse curiosity through word of mouth. 
The naturalist John Bartram described Blue Spring (in present Volusia County) as 
early as 1766, and his son William visited Manatee Spring in 1774. By mid-Igth century, 
many of the springs had become locally popular as swimming holes and picnic spots, and a 
few had been partially developed either as tourist attractions or for commercial navigation 
purposes. With the 'rediscovery' of Florida following the War Between the States, however, 
Florida's springs became the focus of a whole new resort industry.  As railroads and river 
steamers opened up the state's vast hinterlands, Florida became a fashionable wintering 
spot for affluent Northerners. Major springs, along with beaches and lakefronts, were 
rapidly developed in fine style to accommodate an increasing number of visitors. Some of 
the spring waters were reputed to have healing qualities, and many promotional efforts 
were aimed at the ill and the invalid, promising all kinds of miracle cures.  When the 
luster wore off of the tourism boom of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most of the
spring developments fell into disrepair. Many of them remained popular as local recreation 
areas, but most suffered physically from mis-use and neglect. By the time Florida initiated 
its state parks program, in the 1930's, there was a clear need to preserve and protect 
some of the more spectacular springs, but unfortunately no financial ability to do so. 
Three major springs were acquired by the federal government as part of the Ocala National 
Forest, and several others--most notably Silver Springs-were developed by private 
enterprise principally as day-use recreational attractions. It was not until 1949, however, 
with Manatee Springs, that any first magnitude spring was brought under state park 
protection.  Eventually, the state undertook an aggressive park land acquisition program 
in the 1960's, and over ensuing years nine more major springs have been added to the state 
park system alone.  Today, many of Florida's most impressive springs are preserved and 
available to the public for recreational use-and, judging from the increasing visitation, 
they are more popular than ever. The critical concern now is for the protection of these 
invaluable resources so they may continue to fascinate and thrill generations to come.



A BRIEF ON ECONOMIC VALUATION OF FLORIDA'S SPRINGS
MILON, J. W., Food and Resource Economics Dept., Box 110240, University of Florida, 
Gainesville, FL 32611-0240, milon@fred.ifas.ufl.edu 


Florida's springs provide an array of products and services that are an important source 
of economic value to Floridians and to the Florida economy. These products and services 
vary from direct uses such as potable water and water-based recreation to indirect uses 
such as support of ecosystems and living organisms. While this array of products and 
services from Florida's springs is broad and diverse, relatively few quantitative measures 
are available on the aggregate contribution of springs to the Florida economy or the 
relative value of products and services provided by individual springs.  This economic
information is important for two types of allocation decisions. First, choices between 
various direct and indirect uses of water from springs can be made on a rational basis 
with information on the value of the water in alternative uses.  Second, decisions about 
the level of protection for recharge areas for groundwater sources for springs due to 
variations in the quantity or quality of the recharge water require information about the 
relative value of the services and products to be protected.  Increasing demands for
groundwater and water from springs along with population growth and development throughout 
the recharge areas for most springs in Florida are likely to accentuate the need for 
economic valuation information in water resource management.  This paper provides an 
overview of the various products and services that can be attributable to Florida's 
springs and discusses the types of economic values associated with these products and
services. A review of the available information on these economic values is also presented. 
This review indicates that relatively little quantitative information currently exists on 
the economic values provided by Florida's springs. Moreover, the lack of incentives created 
by Florida's administrative water law system to quantify the economic value of water in 
alternative uses suggests that little new economic information will be forthcoming without 
an explicit effort to measure these values. The paper then provides a brief discussion of 
possible methods to provide economic values for specific spring resources.



Spring Characteristics and Basins
FLORIDA SPRINGS: AN OVERVIEW
MATTSON, R. A., Suwannee River Water Management District, 9225 CR 49, Live Oak, 
Florida 32060.


Florida's unique geology results in a concentration of springs found nowhere else in the 
world. A 'spring' is a point of focused discharge of groundwater from underground flow 
systems. Florida's springs exhibit a wide range of hydrology and water chemistry. Springs 
may be classified by their water source (the aquifer which contributes groundwater to the 
spring), their hydrology, or their water chemistry.  The most widely used hydrologic 
classification scheme rates springs from first magnitude (> 100 cubic feet per second of
flow) to eight magnitude (< I pint per minute of flow). up to five different types of 
water chemistry have been described for Florida springs. The biology and ecology of 
Florida's springs has not been well studied. Studies conducted to date provide some 
information on the fauna and flora which live in springs but little research has been done 
to evaluate relationships between the spring environment (hydrology, water chemistry, etc.) 
and the organization of the spring biological communities.



WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF FLORIDA SPRINGS
GERMAN, E.R., U.S. Geological Survey, 224 West Central Parkway, Suite 1006, Altamonte 
Springs, FL
32714, egerman@usgs.gov 


Florida has at least 300 springs which collectively discharge a total of about 8 billion 
gallons of water per day. These springs can be classified as either artesian or water-table 
springs, depending on the type of aquifer from which they derive their water. Artesian 
springs are those which discharge from the confined carbonate rocks of the Floridan 
aquifer system through natural breaches in the confining layer. Water-table springs or 
seeps generally are much smaller than artesian springs. These springs discharge from
unconfined limestone or sands of the surficial aquifer system at outcrops where impermeable 
beds, such as clay, have prevented percolation of water downward to the Floridan aquifer 
system.  Water-quality characteristics of springs depend mainly upon the quality of the 
recharge to the ground-water system, and the chemical nature of the aquifer substrate. The 
quality of recharge water can be affected greatly by human activities. In Florida, these 
activities usually are related to agriculture, residential, and urban development. 
Generally, the aquifer materials control the basic type of water discharging from a spring. 
Land-use practices may affect concentrations of nitrates and other constituents that 
normally are absent or are present only in trace quantities in ground water.  Artesian 
springs usually produce a calcium-magnesium-bicarbonate type of water with a dissolved-
solids concentration less than 300 mg/L (milligrams per liter), resulting from solution of 
the carbonate rocks of the Floridan aquifer system. Some artesian springs discharge water 
of a sodiumchloride type, as a result of saltwater intrusion from the sea or because of 
saline residues from earlier invasions of the sea.  These sodium-chloride type springs may 
have dissolved solids concentrations exceeding 5,000 mg/L.  Water-table springs from sand 
aquifers may discharge water that is relatively low in dissolved solids (less than 50 mg/L), 
because the water does not contact the relatively soluble carbonate rocks. Most spring
water is clear and colorless, but some may have turbid or organic brown-colored water 
typical of many surface waters in Florida (Slack and Rosenau, 1979). This color is 
generally indicative of a source of recharge that is close to the spring vent. Spring-water 
temperature is relatively uniform throughout the year, and in central Florida ranges from 
about 22 'C to 26 *C (Rosenau and others, 1977).  This leads to the striking characteristic 
that spring water seems cold in summer and warm in winter.  There are indications that 
human activities are beginning to affect spring water quality.  Perhaps the most notable 
indicator of human-r-aused effects on spring water quality is given by the presence of the
nitrate ion. Data from the ambient ground-water network of the Florida Department of 
Environmental Protection indicate that, except in northwest Florida, concentrations of 
nitrate in ground water in undeveloped areas are usually less than 0.05 mg/L (Florida 
Geological Survey, 1992). Yet in springs which may discharge recharge from developed areas, 
nitrate concentrations are much greater than those found in the ambient network and may 
even exceed drinking-water standards (Hornsby and Ceryak, 1998) in one of Florida's 
largest springs, Silver Springs near Ocala, nitrate concentrations have increased from 
values less than 0.5 mg/L before 1970 to values approaching 1 mg/L in 1998.



HYDROGEOLOGY OF THE SILVER SPRINGS BASIN, FLORIDA, WITH EMPHASIS 
ON NITROGEN
PHELPS, G.G., U.S. Geological Survey, 224 W. Central Pkwy, Ste.1006, Altamonte Springs, 
FL 32714, tgphelps@usgs.gov

The Silver Springs basin in central Marion County, FL, is a karstic area where the 
limestone of the Upper Floridan aquifer is at or near land surface. The Silver Springs 
group of springs, with an average discharge of about 800 cubic feet per second (about 525 
million gallons per day), is the third largest spring group in Florida and is a well-known 
tourist attraction. In addition to the spring discharge, nearly all of the water used for 
public supply, agriculture, and industrial purposes in the basin comes from the Upper 
Floridan aquifer. In 1995, this totaled about 51 million gallons per day in Marion County, 
an increase of about 9 million gallons per day between 1987-95. All of the water that 
discharges from the springs, as well as the ground water withdrawn from wells, is recharged 
to the aquifer within the 1,200 square-mile-area of the basin. Thus the chemical quality 
of water discharging to the Silver River at Silver Springs is dependent on the quality of 
ground water in the basin. The chemistry of the ground water, in turn, is affected by land 
use in the basin. Historically, the dominant land use in the basin was improved pasture, 
but as population increases in the area, more and more land is being used for residential, 
commercial and recreational purposes.  Because the Upper Floridan aquifer is unconfined in 
a large part of the basin, the potential exists for contamination by surface runoff, by 
leachate from landfills, and by accidental spills of hazardous materials. A well-developed 
fracture-flow system in the Upper Floridan aquifer can transport contaminants rapidly and 
can make prediction of the direction and rate of contaminant movement difficult.  A 
constituent of particular concern is nitrate nitrogen. Small amounts of nitrogen are 
essential for plant and animal growth, but larger amounts can be harmful. Nitrogen is a 
major component of fertilizers and it is also found in wastewater and animal waste. 
Nitrogen in surface water accelerates the growth of nuisance vegetation, decreasing the 
concentration of dissolved oxygen in the water and degrading fish habitat. In drinking 
water, excessive nitrogen can be harmful to infants. The U. S. Environmental Protection 
Agency and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection have adopted a recommended 
limit of 10 milligrams per liter of nitrate (as nitrogen) for drinking water.
Concentrations of total nitrate-plus-nitrite nitrogen in water discharged from Silver 
Springs have increased from about 0.5 milligram per liter in the early 1970s to about 
1.0 milligram per liter in 1999.  During 1989-90, 10 wells tapping the Upper Floridan 
aquifer in the Silver Springs basin were sampled for nitrate nitrogen. The concentrations 
ranged from less than 0.02 to 3.5 milligrams per liter, with a median concentration of 
0.22 milligrams per liter. Five of the wells were resampled in 1994 and 1997. Of the five,
the nitrate concentrations in three were unchanged and in the other two the concentrations 
increased by 0.2 and 1.5 milligrams per liter, respectively.  The isotopic composition of 
nitrate nitrogen dissolved in ground water can indicate the dominant sources of the 
nitrogen. Naturally occurring nitrogen, commercially-produced fertilizer and animal wastes
have different ratios of nitrogen-14 to nitrogen-15. An ongoing study by the U.S. 
Geological Survey, in cooperation vath the St. Johns River Water Management District, the 
Southwest Florida Water Management District, Marion County, and the City of Ocala, will 
describe in more detail the distribution of nitrogen in ground water in the Silver Springs 
basin and its relation to land use. A sampling-well network is being established and 
selected wells will be sampled for isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen and for 
chlorofluoroarbons (CFCs) to help delineate areas of high recharge to the Upper Floridan 
aquifer. Wells having nitrate nitrogen concentrations greater than 1.0 milligrams per 
liter will be sampled for nitrogen isotopes to help delineate the sources of nitrogen to 
the ground water. Key words: springs, karst, Florida, nitrogen, isotopes, CFCs 


DELINEATION OF THE FLORIDAN AQUIFER ZONE OF CONTRIBUTION FOR 
ECONFINA CREEK
RICHARDS, C. J., Northwest Florida Water Management District, Rt. 1, Box 3100, Havana, 
FL 32333, chris.richards@nwfwmd.state.fl.us


Econfina Creek is the main tributary to Deer Point Lake. The Deer Point Lake Reservoir 
currently supplies an average of 45 Mgal/d of water to various public and industrial water 
systems in Bay County, Florida.  Inadequate ground water resources in the more developed, 
coastal portions of the county led to the development of this reservoir, which has become 
a critically important water supply for Bay County. Deer Point Lake and its tributaries, 
including Econfina Creek are designated Class I waters.  Econfina Creek exhibits a high 
base flow compared to other streams in the region. Base flow for this 122 square mile basin 
is approximately 460 cfs (300 Mgal/d) or 3.8 cfs/mi2. The high base flow is attributable 
to significant ground water discharge, which occurs primarily at several large springs 
along the middle reach of Econfina Creek in this area Econfina Creek has eroded into and 
exposed the Floridan Aquifer. The largest of these!gprings is first-magnitude Gainer 
Springs. Spring discharge from the Floridan Aquifer provides approximately 67 percent of 
the Econfina Creek flow or roughly 200 Mgal/d under base flow conditions.  The area where 
ground water within the Floridan Aquifer flows toward and discharges to the Econfina Creek 
was identified in order to allow the District to effectively target resources to protect 
an important recharge area. The Econfina Greek recharge area delineation was based on a 
carefully constructed potentiometric surface map of the Floridan Aquifer. The 
potentiometric surface map served as the basis for locating ground water divides and 
establishing regional ground water flow directions.  Measuring water levels in over 130 
Floridan Aquifer wells and establishing good location and elevation data for these wells 
enhanced the accuracy of this delineation. Eleven test wells were installed in order to
better define the hydrostratigraphy and allow for improved definition of the aquifer's 
potentiometric surface.  The Northwest Florida Water Management District has identified 
acquisition of lands along Econfina Creek as a priority. The Econfina acquisition project 
includes both the stream corridor and adjacent high recharge uplands. These purchases are 
primarily intended to preserve the normal function of these natural areas as a source of 
clean water, thus, contributing to an effort to preserve the water quality of Econfina 
Creek, Deer Point Lake and ultimately the Bay County water supply. To date over 37,000 
acres have been acquired and are currently being managed to preserve the quality of the 
water resource.  Management includes the reestablishment of native vegetation communities 
where expansive, intense tree farming operations had been established, and providing for 
recreational opportunities consistent with resource preservation.


Spring Conduits
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CAVE DEVELOPMENT AND SPRING I AQUIFER 
PROTECTION
KINCAID, T. R., Ph.D., Global Underwater Explorers / Hazieft-Kincaid, Inc., 16 South 
Main Street, High Springs, FL 32643; P.O. Box 6554, Wyomissing, PA 19610, - 
kincaid@uwyo.edu

The Floridan aquifer is one of the most productive aquifers in the United States wherein 
27 first magnitude springs (discharge >= 2.8 m3/sec) discharge from phreatic cave systems. 
The relationship between springs and cave development in the Floridan aquifer is therefore 
important to spring and ground water resource conservation plans because it defines both 
the area of recharge that contributes to spring flows and the potential for rapid ground 
water / surface exchange. Toward this end, the Woodville Karst Plain Project and the newly 
formed Global Underwater Explorers have been conducting purposeful exploration and research 
within saturated cave systems.  Extensive mapping efforts at Wakulla Spring cave have 
yielded 3-D models of the cave morphology as well as important observations of ground water 
flow directions and magnitudes. When compared against topography, modeled morphologic 
anomalies found within the cave system correlate to surface depressions. Ground water 
velocities measured from within the saturated conduits have revealed that the Wakulla cave 
system crosses a ground water divide, directing ground water flow from the northern part 
of the Woodville Karst Plain to Wakulla spring. Meanwhile ground water flow through the 
southern part of the region is directed toward submarine springs in the Gulf of Mexico.
Previous research conducted in Devil's Ear cave on the Santa Fe river addressed the rate 
and potential magnitude of ground water I surface water exchange. Radon-222 (222Rn) and 
618C) variations throughout the cave waters revealed three distinct zones of rapid river 
water intrusion to the aquifer and that recently intruded river water can account for as 
much as 62 percent of the discharge at Devil's Ear spring. Observations of diminished water 
clarity in the cave system following large precipitation events in the highland provinces 
of the Santa Fe river basin indicate that river water intrusion to the aquifer can occur in 
as little as one day. The results of this investigation imply that, in regions such as the 
western Santa Fe river basin, intruded river water provides a significant vehicle for 
contamination of the unconfined Floridan aquifer that in turn poses a threat to spring 
protection efforts.  The Woodville Karst Plain Project and Global Underwater Explorers will 
intensify research efforts by expanding the database of explored and surveyed caves, 
continuing to develop and refine mapping and modeling techniques, and seeking out 
collaborative relationships with academic, governmental, and private entities working to 
understand and protect Florida's ground water resources.


AUTOMATED GENERATION AND DISPLAY OF THREE DIMENSIONAL DIGITAL CAVE 
MAPS
AM ENDE, B. A., Ph.D


The Wakulla 2 Digital Wall Mapper (DWM) produced nearly 5 Gigab_ytes of information on 
Wakulla Spring. The compilation comprises one of the largest natural history data sets ever 
recorded. In addition to millions of three dimensional points that define the boundaries 
of the cavern walls there are also continuous records of the flight path taken by the 
divers who drove the OWM and time-coded digital temperatures along that flight path. The 
'raw' data - the three-dimensional coordinates of the cavern tunnel boundaries - are of 
sufficient density that striking computer-generated maps can be created with these data 
alone. This paper discusses methods for processing and display of such 'point cloud' data,
and several advanced techniques. Because of the complex nature of the data set, including 
numerous tunnel bifurcations and fusions (situations that exist in most Florida springs), 
traditional meshing techniques, such as DeLauney Triangulation, have failed to work on the 
Wakulla data. New, but computationally intensive, techniques, based on NMRI tomographic 
isosurface generation, have shown promise. Their implementation and effectiveness on the 
Wakulla data are discussed. Finally, methods for registration of multiple data sets to the 
Florida UTM NAD83 coordinate system are presented along with initial efforts to 
incorporate digital 3D terrain models.


RESULTS OF THE ROSE CREEK SWALLET TO ICHETUCKNEE SPRINGS DYE TRACE 
STUDY
AUGUST-SEPTEMBER, 1997
BUTT, P.L., HAYES, A.W., Ph.D., MORRIS, T.L. and SKILES, W.C., Karst Environmental 
Services, Inc., 5779 NE County Road 340, High Springs, FL 32643, karstenvser@aol.com 


The lchetucknee Trace, located in Columbia County, Florida, is a dry valley running 
between the Rose Creek Swallet to the north, and the lchetucknee Springs Group to the 
south. The relationship of the lchetucknee Trace to the movement of water between the Rose 
Creek Swallet and the lchetucknee Springs Group, seven miles to the south, is not fully 
understood. A qualitative dye trace was performed in August and September of 1997 by 
members of the lchetucknee Springs Water Quality Working Group and citizen volunteers, to 
determine the velocity and patterns of groundwater movement beneath the Trace.  Twenty 
pounds of fluorescein dye were released on Day One of the trace, August 15, 1997, 
by divers within the cave passage approximately 700 feet downstream of the Rose Creek 
Swallet, at a depth of 140 feet below the water table. Water samples were taken, and 
charcoal dye traps collected and replaced at scheduled intervals at fourteen monitoring 
locations. Water samples were analyzed on-site with a Turner Model 10 filter fluorometer. 
Charcoal trap elutions were also performed on-site. The results of on-site water and trap 
analyses proved inconclusive, apparently due to the degree of dilution of the dye. 
Additional long-duration charcoal traps were collected from ten of the monitoring locations 
and sent to Ozark Underground Laboratory for analysis on a Shimadzu RF500OU 
spectrofluorophotometer.  The high sensitivity and synchronous scanning feature of this 
instrument provided useful results.  The released dye was positively detected at six 
springs, including Mission Spring, Blue Hole Spring, Grassy Hole Spring, Millpond Spring, 
Devils Eye Spring, and Cedar Head Spring. No dye was detected at the Ichetucknee 
Headspring, Coffee Spring or the other locations. Dye was first detected at Mission spring, 
arriving sometime between Day Seven and Day Twelve of the trace. Dye arrived at the other
springs between Day 12 and Day 19. Dye was recovered from traps in place in Mission and 
Blue Hole Spring as late as Day 36.  This tracer study demonstrated a hydrologic connection 
between the Rose Creek Swallet and certain springs within the lchetucknee Springs Group, 
and a minimum groundwater travel time of at least six days. This study also showed that 
due to the distances and dilutions that occur within the Trace area use of a 
spectrofluorophotometer for the analysis of recovered dye is essential.


SURFACE AND GROUND WATER MIXING IN A KARST AQUIFER: AN EXAMPLE FROM 
THE
FLORIDAN AQUIFER
DEAN, R.W., CH2M HILL, 4350 W. Cypress Street, Suite 600, Tampa, FL 33607, 
rdeanich2m.com

Karst aquifers are characterized by solutionally developed openings which allow diversion 
of surface water into the subsurface, thus making karst aquifers vulnerable to 
contamination.  Modeling of flow through karst aquifers is typically based on examining 
changes in chemistry of spring water discharge following a large storm event. These models 
generally examine flow through conduit-dominated systems.  The Floridan Aquifer in 
north-central Florida has well developed conduit systems, but flow through the aquifer 
matrix may contribute to a significant portion of spring discharge. The extent of surface 
and ground water mixing is investigated here within a karst aquifer in north-central 
Florida where the Santa Fe River, a sinking stream, is linked to a resurgent spring, the 
River Rise, approximately 5 km downstream.  Minima and maxima of water temperature are 
systematically delayed downstream from the River Sink to Sweetwater Lake (an intermediate 
karst window), to the River Rise. These delays indicate that the total subsurface travel 
time of the river ranges from -12 hours to nearly 8 days at high and low stage,
respectively. Physical and chemical data indicate that significant surface and ground 
water mixing is occurring. The cl- concentration at Sweetwater Lake and the River Rise 
indicate that as much as 93% and 99%, respectively, of resurgent water has a ground water 
composition at a low flow river stage of 10.44 meters above sea level (mast), but as little 
as 2% ground water resurges at Sweetwater Lake and the River Rise at high stage of 13.43 
mash assuming two end-member mixing. Mixing may include, however, additional end-members 
on the basis of So42- and Mg2 concentrations, which are greater by 97% and 6%, at low and 
high stage, respectively, at Sweetwater Lake than either at the Sink or any sampled ground 
water source. These elevated S04 - and Mg concentrations suggest that an estimated 53% to 
90% of the water sampled at Sweetwater Lake is derived from additional sources, at 
a low stage of 10.70 masi. At low river stage, significant surface and ground water 
mixing/exchange makes the aquifer vulnerable to contamination from polluted surface water. 
At high stage, surface water entering the aquifer matrix creates the potential for polluted 
water to remain in the aquifer and mix with resident ground water. Consequently, flow in 
the Floridan Aquifer, and perhaps other similar karst aquifers, cannot be considered purely 
conduit or matrix dominated. These aquifers may have components of both, and the 
proportions of conduit versus matrix flow may vary depending on recharge. The chemical and 
physical characterization of all surface and ground water inputs into the Santa Fe River 
system would allow mixing and/or chemical reactions to be precisely quantified.


Water Quality
WATER QUALITY IN FLORIDA SPRINGS
HAND, J., Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 2600 Blair Stone Road, Mail 
Station 3565, Tallahassee, FL 32399-2400, joe.hand@dep.state.fl.us

Most Floridians depend on ground water for their drinking water. In a disturbing trend, 
nitrate levels are increasing in many spring discharges in Florida. This trend is 
indicative of ground water contamination and the potential for additional nutrient 
pollution in surface waters. The contamination is a particular concen in waters of the 
state whose productivity is nitrogen limited and that receive large quantities of ground 
water.  A review of water quality data for springs in Florida, taken from the STORET 
database, leads to the following observations: chemical sampling in springs is relatively 
complete; biological sampling to evaluate the impact of nutrient enrichment from springs 
is needed; and sources for nitrates need to be identified, quantified, and modeled.
Water quality data at 70 Florida springs are compared and contrasted with water quality 
data from 7400 sampling stations in Florida streams. Trends are shown for the 1960-1998 
time period for several constituents, with nitrate showing a significant degrading trend.
A more detailed analysis of data is provided for the Wakulla Springs and River and the 
complex of springs located in the middle Suwannee River basin. Spatial and temporal changes 
in nitrate and the relationship between water clarity and rainfall are examined in Wakulla 
Springs and River. Nitrate trends and sources of nitrate are presented for the Suwannee 
River.


NITRATE-NITROGEN IN THE SUWANNEE RIVER
Hornsby, H. D., Suwannee River Water Management District, 9225 County Road 49, Live 
Oak, Florida, 32060, hornsby_d@srwmd.state.fl.us


The Suwannee River is the second largest river in the State of Florida with a mean annual 
discharge of 10,470 cubic feet per second or 6.7 billion gallons per day. The Suwannee 
River Basin covers 9,950 square miles. Forty three percent of the basin is in Florida and 
fifty-seven percent of the basin is in Georgia. The predominant developed land use in the 
Florida portion of the Basin is agriculture, including forestry, pasture, row crops, and 
intensive animal husbandry.  The Suwannee River Water Management District (SRWMD) maintains 
a surfacewater quality-monitoring network comprised of 98 stations (58 stations in the 
Suwannee River Basin).  This network has been operational since 1989 and is funded by the 
Surface Water Improvement and Management (SWIM) Trust fund. Using data from this network, 
a statistically significant (95 percent confidence level) increasing trend in 
nitrate-nitrogen concentration has been identified. There is an inverse relationship 
between nitrate-nitrogen concentrations and flow at Branford, Florida. The nitratt,
-nitrogen is transported into the river via ground water in Florida. The SRWMD's 
groundwater monitoring network, as well as other studies, show elevated concentrations of 
nitrate-nitrogen in the upper Floridan aquifer system. At low flow conditions, the base 
flow of the Suwannee River is made up of ground water from the upper Floridan aquifer 
system.  The total load of nitrate-nitrogen for the Suwannee River    Basin for water year 
1998 was estimated 7113 tons. Of the total load, the Santa Fe River Basin accounts for an 
estimated 1,195 tons or 16.8 percent and the middle Suwannee River Basin accounts for an 
estimated 3234.25 tons, or 45.5 percent.  The Santa Fe River Basin is 1,390 square miles, 
or 14 percent of the Suwannee River Basin area; while the Middle Suwannee River Basin is 
862 square miles, or 8.7 percent of the Suwannee River Basin Area.



SOURCES OF NITRATE CONTAMINATION OF SPRING WATERS, SUWANNEE RIVER 
BASIN,
FLORIDA
KATZ, Brian G., U.S. Geological Survey,227 N. Bronough St., Tallahassee, FL 32301,
bkatz@usgs.qov; HORNSBY, David, Suwannee River Water Management District, 9225
County Road 49, Live Oak, FL 32060, hornsby_d@srwmd.state.fl.us; BOHLKE, J.K.,
USGS, 431 National Center, Reston, VA 20192, jkbohike@usas.gov; and MOKRAY,
Michael F., USGS, 227 N. Bronough St., Tallahassee, FL 32301


During the past 40 years, nitrate-nitrogen (N) concentrations have increased from less 
than 0.1 to more than 5 milligrams per liter in many spring waters in the Suwannee River 
basin, resulting in high N loading rates to the Suwannee and Santa Fe Rivers. In 1997 and 
1998, as part of a cooperative study between the Suwannee River Water Management District 
and the USGS, water samples were collected from 24 springs and  analyzed for a variety of 
chemical and isotopic tracers. A multi-tracer approach was used to better understand 
sources of nitrate contamination and their relation to the age of spring waters discharging 
to the Suwannee and Santa Fe Rivers. Information on nitrate sources related to changes in
land-use activities in the basin during 1954-97 also was used to estimate N inputs from 
nonpoint sources (fertilizers, animal wastes, atmospheric deposition, and septic tanks) for 
Suwannee, Lafayette, Gilchrist, Columbia, and Alachua Counties.  During 1954-97, total 
estimated N from all nonpoint sources increased continuously in Gilchrist and Lafayette 
Counties. In Suwannee, Alachua, and Columbia Counties, estimated N inputs from all 
nonpoint sources peaked in the late 1970's corresponding to the peak in fertilizer use 
during this time. In addition, fertilizer use in Columbia, Gilchrist, 
Lafayette, and Suwannee Counties increased substantially during 1993-97 The impact of 
heavy usage of fertilizers in the basin is indicated by nitrogen-isotope values for spring 
waters that range from 2.7 to 10.6 per mil with a median value of 5.4 per mil.  The age of 
spring waters and the average residence time of ground water discharging to springs were 
estimated by analyzing the measured concentrations of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC1 1 and 
CFC-1 13) and tritium using several mathematical models of the complex ground-water flow 
system.  Model results indicate that springs are discharging mixtures of ground water from 
shallow and deep parts of the aquifer system; these mixtures have average residence times 
ranging from years to decades depending on the size of the contributing area for the 
spring, extent and size of conduit system, and recharge conditions.  However, nitrate 
concentrations in spring waters from Lafayette and Suwannee County closely match estimated 
inputs of nitrogen from fertilizers with time indicating that substantial amounts of 
nitrate are moving into the shallow flow system from recent recharge water (months to 
years), mixing with ground water that was recharged more than 10 years ago, and discharging 
in spring waters. Even if present day nitrogen inputs were reduced substantially, it may 
take decades for nitrate concentrations in the ground-water system to return to 
concentrations near background levels.



WATER QUALITY AND ISOTOPE CONCENTRATIONS FROM SELECTED SPRINGS IN 
FLORIDA
TOTH, D. J., St. Johns River Water Management District, P. 0. Box 1429, Palatka, Fl 
32178-1429, david_toth@district.sjrwmd.state.fl.us 


Water quality and stable and radioactive isotope concentrations were determined for 
selected springs in east-central Florida. Seventeen springs (two of which are submerged), 
eight wells in the Upper Floridan aquifer, and one well in the Lower Floridan aquifer were 
sampled to assess water quality and stable and radioactive isotope concentrations. The 
purposes of the sampling were (1) to document water quality, (2) to determine the isotopic 
characteristics of spring water, (3) to determine the source of spring water, (4) to
determine the age of spring water and to evaluate the nature of the spring flow system, 
and (5) to determine the sources of elevated nitrate-nitrogen concentrations in these 
springs.  Water quality was highly variable for the springs sampled. Water quality in the 
springs generally compared favorably with that in the sampled wells.  The data indicate 
that the source of spring discharge is from the Upper Floridan aquifer.  The data further 
indicate that the flow system for all of these springs ranges from shallow to 
deep. Water discharging from the springs consists of a mixture of ages; some water is less 
than 43 years old, and some is hundreds to thousands of years old. This age difference 
supports the concept that these springs have complex flow systems.  The delta-nitrogen-15 
values for water from the springs sampled in this study suggest that the springs have been 
polluted by animal waste and/or sewage and from fertilizers. The available data do not
provide a distinction between past and present nitrate contamination.


Springs Discharge

WHAT DISCHARGES FROM FLORIDA SPRINGS?
MARTIN, J. B., Department of Geological Sciences, University of Florida, 241 Williamson
Hall, P.O. Box 112120, Gainesville, FL, 32611-2120, jmartin@qeology.ufl.edu


The chemistry of spring water is commonly used to characterize karst hydrogeology. For 
example, some springs show large variations in discharge, chemical composition, and 
temperature at time scales of both storm events and seasons. These variations have been 
suggested to reflect point sources of water flowing from conduits. In contrast, other 
springs have uniform discharge, chemical composition, and temperature through time. These 
springs are believed to have diffuse sources from micro-pores and fractures in the matrix 
rocks. The distinction between these two types of flow is important because it may
control the extent of mixing between surface and ground water, as well as the length of 
time that surface water and associated pollutants remain in the subsurface following 
infiltration. Karst aquifers are particularly susceptible to pollution because of rapid 
flow of surface water into ground water systems through conduits. Karst water also 
represents the primary water supply in many areas, and thus it is important to understand 
the rate and extent of mixing between surface and ground water systems, mixing between 
matrix and conduits in the subsurface, and the location and time of discharge of this mixed 
water back to the surface.  Like most karst aquifers, the Floridan aquifer is characterized 
by an extensive conduit system. These conduits are shown by flow rates which approach 
kilometers per day as shown by dye trace studies.  Many conduits have also been mapped 
through cave diving. Cave divers enter most Floridan conduit systems through springs, and 
thus these springs would be expected to exhibit rapid changes in their physical and 
chemical characteristics. Two studies in north-central Florida, however, suggest that
conduits are not the primary source to Floridan springs regardless of the extensive 
development of conduits. One study of six springs discharging to the lchetucknee River 
showed that chemical compositions of the spring water (concentrations of Cl, S04, Na, K, 
Mg, and Ca) varied little between July 1996 and July 1997 although precipitation and 
potential recharge varied considerably during this time.  Dye trace studies and cave 
diving exploration indicate significant conduit development in the region, but the constant 
composition reflects discharge primarily from the matrix rocks. Three of the springs
(ichetucknee, Cedar, and Coffee springs) show slight seasonal variations in temperature, 
at most only by 0.30C. These three springs also have lower, but uniform, Cl concentrations 
and temperatures and higher oxygen concentrations than the other three springs (Mission, 
Devil's Eye, and Mill Pond springs). These differences suggest that the two groups of 
springs have different sources of water. The source for the group with the elevated oxygen 
concentrations and lower temperatures may be more shallow than for the other group.  A 
study of the sink-rise system of the Santa Fe River also showed significant amounts of 
matrix flow in a conduit system. A single dye trace study and high resolution temperature 
measurements indicate that flow rates from the sink to the rise can be as high as'several 
kilometers per day and suggest that the sink is connected to the rise by one or more 
conduits. Water entering the sink is chemically similar to water discharging from the rise 
when the river floods. In contrast, at low flow, water entering the sink is chemically 
distinct from water discharging from the rise, which has compositions similar to regional
ground water. During floods, some fraction of water entering the sink must reach the rise 
with little dilution from the surrounding matrix, although some water may flow from the 
conduits to the matrix. During low flow conditions, however, there must be exchange of 
water between the conduits and matrix. The loss of water from the conduits to the matrix 
is also seen in the chemical composition of a water supply well located -2 km down the 
regional ground water gradient from the river rise. Its Cl concentration decreased
steadily during the study possibly reflecting dilution from earlier flooding. In contrast, 
the Ca concentration remained steady during this time perhaps reflecting natural 
dissolution of the matrix rocks.  The extensive mixing between water in the conduits and 
matrix porosity of the Floridan aquifer suggests that pollutants flushed into the 
subsurface through conduits may enter the matrix porosity. The pollutants thus may reside 
in the subsurface for long periods of time and make remediation difficult. The pollutants 
may also flow across wide geographic areas and into water supplies. In addition, once 
polluted, Floridan spring water could remain polluted for long periods of time, rather 
than be quickly flushed of the contaminants.


ESTIMATING THE POTENTIAL IMPACTS TO SPRING FLOW IN THE WEKIVA 
RIVER BASIN FROM
PROJECTED FUTURE GROUND WATER WITHDRAWALS
MCGURK, B. E., P.G., Ground Water Programs Division, St Johns River Water Management
District, P.O. Box 1429, Palatka Fl. 32178, brian_mcgurk@district.sjrwmd.state.us 


The Wekiva River is a tributary to the St. Johns river located in east-central Florida 
near metropolitan Orlando. The Wekiva River system, which includes the Wekiva River and 
its tributary, Blackwater Creek, is fed by a group of 14 second and third magnitude named 
springs. Measured flows at several of these Floridan aquifer springs, including Rock 
Spring and Wekiva spring, averages 64 percent of the measured downstream flow on the main 
stem of the river, or about 183 cubic feet per second. The Wekiva River's classification 
as an Outstanding Florida Waterway is due, at least in part, to this unique baseflow
characteristic as well as to the large wetlands through which the river flows.  The demand 
for potable water in east-central Florida is supplied almost exclusively by ground water
from the Floridan aquifer. Total Floridan aquifer withdrawal rates in Lake, Orange, and 
Seminole counties (which enclose the Wekiva River basin) increased from approximately 150 
million gallons per day in 1970 to approximately 350 million gallons per day in 1995. In 
the same area, Floridan withdrawal rates are projected to increase to approximately 602 
million gallons per day in 2020.  The concern exists that decreased Floridan aquifer 
potentiometric levels, in response to increased pumping, will result in lower spring 
discharges within the Wekiva River basin. The St Johns River Water Management District has 
adopted minimum flows for 8 of the springs in the Wekiva River system.  Reduction of 
average spring discharge rates below the established minimum flows may result in 
significant harm to wetlands within the basin.  A regional-scale numerical ground water 
flow model was used to estimate the cumulative impact of Floridan aquifer withdrawals upon 
individual spring discharge rates & upon baseflow to the Wekiva River system.  Estimated 
average 1995 and 2020 withdrawal rates at approximately 8300 Floridan aquifer well 
locations in 9 counties surrounding the Orlando metropolitan area were tabulated and 
incorporated as input, along with existing hydrogeologic information. The model was 
calibrated to average, steady state 1995 conditions by comparing simulated water levels 
with measured water levels at over 300 observation wells completed in the surficial and 
Floridan aquifers. Calibration also included comparisons of simulated spring discharge 
with measured flow at 23 Floridan aquifer springs, simulated Floridan aquifer recharge
with previously published recharge estimates, and simulated baseflow to streams with 
existing estimates.  Model simulations indicate that projected 2020 withdrawals may result 
in a 13.6 percent decrease in total Wekiva River basin spring flow relative to 1995. 
Predicted declines in discharge at individual spring locations vary with distance from the 
areas of greatest predicted decline in the Floridan aquifer potentiometric surface. 
Predicted spring flow decreases at second magnitude springs within the Wekiva River system 
range from 6.3 percent at Island Spring to 24.5 percent at Palm & Saniando Springs. Three
springs (Palm, Sanlando, and Starbuck) are predicted to have average 2020 discharge rates 
that are less than the established minimum flow rates.


WITHDRAWALS OF WATER FROM FLORIDA SPRINGS: BALANCING BENEFITS AND 
IMPACTS
PARKER, J. W., Southwest Florida Water Management District, 2379 Broad Street, 
Brooksville, FL 34609-6899, John.Parker@swfwmd.state fl.us 

Springs in Florida have been used to supply water for many purposes, including public 
supply, industrial uses, recreational attractions, irrigation, and bottled drinking water. 
The demand for bottled natural spring water has increased substantially, growing more 
rapidly over the past decade than any other product in the beverage market. The beverage 
industry is continuing to seek potential sources of natural spring water to meet the 
increasing demand. The industry has a strong incentive to protect the quality and quantity 
of the spring water resource upon which it depends, as well as a business incentive to 
increase withdrawals to meet a growing demand for their spring water products.  To be 
granted a permit for a spring withdrawal, an applicant must provide reasonable assurances
that certain conditions are met, including that a withdrawal will not cause harm to water 
resources and the environments which receive a spring's flow. Florida's water management 
districts must consider how much water can be withdrawn from a spring without causing 
unacceptable adverse impacts to the natural systems which receive the spring flow. 
Relevant information to be considered includes: trends and fluctuations of spring discharge 
and water quality; definition of the hydrological and ecological characteristics of 
receiving systems, and inventory of species which inhabit the environments sustained by 
spring flow. In the evaluation of the cumulative effects of withdrawals on spring 
discharges, it is important to consider both the effects of direct withdrawals from springs 
and associated streams, as well as the indirect effects of well withdrawals upon that 
portion of an aquifer which contributes to the flow of a spring. The potential for 
interference with other existing withdrawals must also be considered.



THE POTENTIAL FOR RESTORATION OF KISSENGEN SPRINGS IN POLK 
COUNTY
COOK, C. L., Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Mine 
Reclamation, 2001 Homeland-Garfield Rd., Bartow, FL, 33830, Cook_C@dep.state.fl.us


Forgotten in the swampy floodplain of the Peace River in South Central Florida, once 
famous Kissengen Springs lies dormant beneath fifty years of backwater sediments. The site, 
though hardly recognizable as the location of what was a second magnitude spring, once 
hosted as many as ten thousand visitors in one day, was the favorite swimming hole for 
thousands of regular locals, and has been the featured subject in news articles since the 
late 19th century.  It is believed that Kissengen Spring was fed by pressurized waters 
from the Floridan aquifer system and other local aquifers. As increased groundwater 
withdrawal beginning in the late 1930's lowered the potentiometric surface of the aquifers, 
Kissengen Spring gradually ceased flowing. The spring was publicly declared inactive in 
1950 as the result of overpumpage. Investigations into the loss of the spring determined 
that it might flow again should the recharge of the supporting aquifer exceed withdrawals, 
an unlikely scenario until several important factors changed.  Today, the restoration of 
Kissengen Springs is a topic that is receiving a serious review by environmental managers 
and by entities charged with the long-term planning for the development of the surrounding 
area. Within this window of opportunity, the implications of treating the spring as a 
resource that might be restored is engaging the review of many stakeholders, including a 
new generation of owners and potential users. The underlying question may be whether or 
not the water deficit shortage faced by Kissengen Spring is real and permanent, or the 
result of a period of lower than average rainfall coupled with decades of pre-regulatory 
overdrafting of the aquifer. If the latter is true, and consensus can be reached on the 
future disposition of groundwater resources, then the potential exists for reclaiming the
natural level of the local potentiometric surface in which case Kissengen Spring might be 
restored.



Monitoring and Management
STABILITY AND CHANGE IN WATER CHEMISTRY AND SUBMERGED AQUATIC 
VEGETATION OF A COASTAL SPRING-RUN AND ASSOCIATED INSHORE ESTUARIES.
DIXON, L. K., Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota FL 34236,
lkdixon@mote.org; ESTEVEZ, E.D., Mote Marine Laboratory, .1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, 
Sarasota FL 34236, estevez@mote.org

Florida's Big Bend coast is a sediment-poor, low-energy crescent of marshes and shallow 
inshore ecosystems. From the Withlacoochee River south to Anclote Anchorage, several 
small-to-large spring runs provide the majority of freshwater flow to extensive areas of 
submerged aquatic vegetation (sea grasses and rooted and drift algae) critical to the 
maintenance of water clarity, fishery production, and other estuarine resources and values. 
Nitrate is a nutrient of concern in the region's spring runs andestuaries because of its 
ability to promote eutrophication, or overgrowth of underwater plants. Nitrate 
concentrations in springs along the coast are higher than before, high compared to other 
surface waters, and projected to increase. Additional nitrate enters the ecosystem as 
rainfall, raising questions about the fate and effect of nitrate; the ecosystem's present 
status, and its ability to process increased loads.  We have monitored water quality and 
vegetation in the Chassahowitzka River and National Wildlife Refuge (Hernando and Citrus 
counties) since 1996 and find present-day water quality to be very good, and tied closely 
to salinity patterns. Nitrate concentration decreases rapidly down the length of the
Chassahowitzka. Relatively little nitrogen is actually in water-most is in sediment, 
followed by plants, and then animals. A big question for the future of the spring ecosystem 
and Refuge will be how sediment and plants will react to increased nutrient loads.  
Compared to coastal areas to the north and south, submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) of 
the Refuge is relatively unstudied. Diversity and amounts of SAV in and near the Refuge are 
regulated by the geologic structure of the coastline, tidal exposure, and spring 
discharges. Salinity effects on SAV are greater along the length of the Chassahowitzka than 
down the coast. Shallow coastal waters of the Refuge contain more vegetated bottom than 
bare bottom, and diverse beds of green algae are as abundant as beds of sea grass, or more 
so. So far, drift accumulations of algae (indicators of eutrophication) have been sparse. 
Changes.in species prevalence before, during, and after a persistent bloom of planktonic 
algae in 1998 suggest the types of ecosystem responses that may be expected if nutrient 
loads from spring discharges or atmospheric deposition are significantly increased. Funded 
by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Air Quality Branch. Assistance of Chassahowitzka 
National Wildlife Refuge is gratefully acknowledged.


MONITORING WATER QUALITY IN SPRING SYSTEMS - THE NEED FOR 
ACCURATE SAMPLING
MUMMA, M. T., CICHRA,, C. E., fish@gnv.ifas.ufl.edu, CANFIELD, D. E. Jr., ADICKS, V.K., 
and SOWARDS, J. T., Dept. of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences, Univ. of Florida, 7922 NW 71S 
Street, Gainesville, FL, 32653-3071.

The Rainbow River is the third largest spring system in Florida. Groundwater sources for 
the river arise from spring vents concentrated in the upper 0.5 km of the river 
(headsprings) and account for 97 to 99% of total flow. It is believed that nitrate 
concentrations have increased in the Rainbow River and other spring-fed surface waters in 
central Florida. The Southwest Florida Water Management District reported a 12-fold 
increase in nitrate concentration over the last 38 years. However, historical data reveal 
high variation in nitrate concentrations, possibly due to changes in chemical analyses 
methodologies, inconsistent sampling locations, or natural variation.  To determine whether 
nitrate concentration has increased within the Rainbow River, historical water chemistry 
data were obtained from the United States Geological Survey. All samples were collected
within the headsprings. At first glance, the data indicate an increase in nitrate 
concentration between 1963 and 1995. Concentrations gradually increased from 1963 to 1987, 
then showed a dramatic increase between 1987 and 1988 from approximately 0.3 to 1.0 mg/L. 
After 1988, nitrate concentrations showed little variation until 1991, at which time 
concentrations became highly variable. The observed sudden increase in 1988 was unlikely 
due to actual changes in groundwater nitrate concentration.  Initially, it was believed 
that changes in lab methodologies might be responsible.  However, lab procedures did not 
change, nor did the sampling location on the river (headsprings). Subsequent analysis of 
historical data indicated that other measured chemical concentrations also showed an
increase between 1987 and 1988. Calcium concentrations, showed this increase and closely 
mirrored nitrate concentrations between 1981 and 1995. Increases in groundwater nitrate 
concentrations have been attributed to agricultural practices, particularly the use of 
nitrogen based fertilizers. However, an increase in calcium concentration would not be 
expected due to its low transport rate through soils.  It was later determined that 
although samples were always taken in the headsprings, in 1988 the sampling location was 
moved from the western shore to the eastern shore. Thus, the observed increase in nitrate 
concentration might be due to intra-river variation in nitrates due to multiple point 
sources (spring vents) of groundwater. To determine if this was a viable explanation for 
the observed sudden increase in nitrate concentrations rather than actual increases in 
groundwater nitrate concentrations, six spring vents located within the headsprings were 
sampled on August 15, 1995 directly at the submersed spring vents by a diver. Total 
nitrogen and total phosphorus concentrations, pH, and conductivity were determined. A 
concurrent investigation of the Rainbow River water chemistry revealed that nitrate
concentrations never represented less than 95% of the total nitrogen.  Significant 
differences in measured water chemistry among spring vents within the headsprings were 
detected. Therefore, movement of the sampling location is a likely explanation for the 
dramatic increase in nutrient concentrations between 1987 and 1988.  Due to significant 
differences in water chemistry within the headsprings and the change in locations where 
water samples were collected, any long-term analysis must exclude data collected since 
1988. A simple linear regression of nitrate concentration and time indicates a weak but 
statistically significant increase in nitrate concentration of 0.178 to 0.339 mg/L from 
1963 to 1987. The location at which water samples were collected during this time was near 
a low-discharge spring vent which only represents a small proportion of the total discharge 
of the headsprings. The observed doubling in nitrate concentration over this 24-year period 
may or may not be representative of the nitrate concentration in other spring vents or the 
Rainbow River as a whole. Because no other historical water chemistry data exist, it is
impossible to determine if any long-term changes in nitrate concentrations have indeed 
occurred in the Rainbow River. All observed nitrate concentrations are well below the 
drinking water standard of 10 mg/L.  By long-term sampling of individual vents within 
spring systems, researchers can monitor long-term trends in nutrient concentrations of 
numerous groundwater sources. When developing a long-term water quality monitoring program 
in spring systems, care must be taken in selecting and maintaining exact sampling 
locations.  Our data suggest that researchers initially sample a number of spring vents to
determine if variation in water chemistry exists. If significant differences are found 
among individual vents or groups of vents, then multiple samples should be taken in order 
to monitor water chemistry of the different groundwater sources which ultimately determine 
overall surface water chemistry in spring systems.


BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES IN SPRING-DOMINATED STREAMS
FRYDENBORG, R. B., Dept. Environmental Protection, 2600 Blairstone Rd., Tallahassee, FL 
32399-2400, russel.frydenborg@dep.state.fl.us; FRICK, T. F., Dept. Environmental 
Protection, 2600 Blairstone Rd, Tallahassee, FL 32399-2400, thomas.frick@dep.state.fl.us


Physical and chemical characteristics of Floridan Aquifer springs can influence the 
biological communities in streams receiving the spring discharge. For example, exceptional 
water clarity promotes the growth of submerged aquatic plants (which are often light-
limited) and the high calcium content of the spring water is conducive to the growth of 
molluscs (which require calcium to build their shells). However, contaminants (e.g., 
nitrate-nitrite) from the springs may also significantly affect biological communities.
This presentation will summarize the past 30 years of benthic macroinvertebrate data 
collected by the FDEP in spring-dominated streams to establish expectations for these 
systems and to evaluate temporal trends.  Using the Stream Condition Index, spring sites 
sampled within the past 8 years were compared to eco-regional reference conditions to 
determine relative community health. Additionally, historic and recent (pre- and post-1980) 
artificial substrate data were evaluated to assess changes over time.  Work is currently 
underway to develop an Algal Sensitivity Index, which would detect problems lower in the 
food web. Anecdotal evidence suggests that increases in spring's nitrate-nitrite 
concentrations may be associated with nuisance algal mats in the spring runs, or algae 
blooms farther downstream.  Biological assessments may be used as an early warning system, 
demonstrating adverse effects of human activities while there is still time to make 
appropriate changes to protect the resource.



WHERE IS THE NITRATE COMING FROM? OUR OWN BACKYARDS....
JONES, G. W., DEW[TT, D. J. and CHAMPION, K. M., Southwest Florida Water Management 
District, Brooksville, Fl 34609. Upchurch, S. B., Environmental Resources Management - 
South, Tampa, Fl 33619-1345.

Over the last few decades springs throughout west-central Florida have experienced declines 
in water quality. Levels of nitrate, an important component of inorganic fertilizers, have 
been steadily increasing in many of the springs. Current levels range from 0.2 mg/l in the 
King's Bay Springs to 3.1 mg/i at Lithia Springs. Although these concentrations are well 
below Florida's primary drinking water standard (10 mg/i N03 as N), the levels are 
significantly elevated above background values (0.01 mg/i N03 as N) measured statewide in 
the Floridan aquifer. Currently 3.3 million pounds (1,660 tons) of nitrate are discharged 
annually from the springs in west-central Florida.  On average the daily flow of ground 
water from the springs amounts to 1.6 billion gallons. This  tremendous amount of water is 
derived solely from the Floridan aquifer. Much of the spring water hrst fell as rain in 
areas near the springs (typically within 5 - 10 miles of the springs), before seeping into 
the ground and into the Floridan aquifer. Once in the Floridan/ the ground water travels 
rapidly through the upper most portion of the aquifer to the springs. Water quality, as 
measured at the springs, therefore, reflects the overall health of the aquifer near the 
springs.  Between 1991 and 1998 approximately 70 springs and 400 monitor wells in the 
northern portions of the SWFWMD were sampled in an effort to determine the sources of 
nitrate discharging at the springs.  Research conducted at springs like Rainbow, Homosassa, 
Chassahowitzka, Weeki Wachee and Lithia Springs revealed that the nitrate in the ground 
water mostly originated from the use of inorganic fertilizers.  This fertilizer was applied 
to a variety of land uses including pasture grasses, residential lawns, golf-course turf 
and citrus groves. Septic tanks and wastewater were minor, but important contributors of
nitrate. The research also revealed that the nitrate, discharging at the springs, had 
entered the Floridan aquifer within several miles of the springs, and within the last 20 
years.


ASSESSING WATER-RESOURCE VULNERABILITY: A PLANNING TOOL FOR 
COMMUNITY DECISIONS
SINGLETON, T. L., Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 2600 Blair Stone Road, 
Mail Station 3565, Tallahassee, FL 32399-2400, thomas.singleton@dep.state.fl.us 

Concerns about water-resource vulnerability and the long-term sustainability of our water 
resources have rapidly increased across the United States over the past few decades. 
Broadly defined, water-resource vulnerability refers to the overall vulnerability of 
surface water and ground water. Vulnerability includes water-quality issues, such as 
pollution, as well as water-supply issues, such as aquifer recharge or overuse. The causes 
can vary greatly: they may be human or natural, or they may stem from human populations 
and natural systems.  Long-term sustainability means that enough water is available to 
support natural systems and human populations over time, and that the supply of water is 
naturally replenished. Once a water supply is contaminated, for example, sustainability is 
affected because the contamination may be difficult or impossible to fix. Or, if the 
natural flow of water is disrupted (e.g., when stormwater is channeled directly to rivers 
and lakes rather than being allowed to replenish underground aquifers or fill wetlands), 
its potential benefits are lost and sustainabilityis affected.  The issue of water-resource 
vulnerability is explored using the St. Marks River Basin in Northwest Florida as a model. 
Problems associated with the high degree of surface water and ground water interaction 
between the many sinkholes and springs that characterize the basin will be emphasized.
Water-resource vulnerability in the basin will be analyzed from the perspective of place.
Important attributes of place include:
*   Physical form comprises physical characteristics such as soils, geology, hydrology, 
weather, and climate.
*   Basin function describes the valuable and varied 'services" that the natural system 
provides, such as flood control, water storage, and filtering of pollutants.
*   Assimilative capacity refers to a natural system's ability to assimilate wastes, both 
biologically and chemically, through its soils and native characteristics.
*  Ecosystem integrity means the long-term diversity, stability, and sustainability of a 
river basin's natural systems and biological communities.
*   "Uniqueness of place," a key concept, refers to the fact that a river basin's physical 
characteristics give rise to unique biological systems.
The assessment of vulnerability is shown to have critical implications for community 
design. The approach described provides an avenue for raising important questions about 
the unique surface water and ground water resources of a region, exploring the most crucial 
problems and issues from different perspectives, using scientific knowledge as a basis for 
developing solutions, and building community support for resolving problems.  If we fail to 
understand the basic vulnerabilities of our water resources and the link between land use
and pollution, our natural systems will eventually be obliterated and the quality of life 
for residents and visitors will diminish. The effects would be devastating for us, for 
Florida's economy, and for the other species who share this unique and valuable place.


Aquatic Animals of Spring Systems
A REVIEW OF FLORIDA AQUATIC CAVE BIOLOGY AND POSSIBLE THREATS TO 
ENDEMIC CAVE FAUNA
MORRIS, T. L., Karst Environmental Services, 5779 NE County Road 340, High Springs, FL 
32643, troglobyte@earthlink.net 

Florida's springs and aquatic caves are critical habitats for at least 40 species of 
macroscopic troglobitic (cave dependent) and troglophilic (cave loving) animals, harboring 
one of the richest underground aquatic faunas in North America. A number of these species 
have limited ranges, with 22 species known only from their type localities. Changes in 
water quantity and quality as well as catastrophes pose a threat to these rare species. 
These threats, as well as our lack of knowledge of certain aspects of the basic biology
of these species, have prompted the Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and 
Animals to identify most Florida spring and cave dependent taxa as deserving state or 
federal protection. Currently three species are legally protected.  Several instances of 
troglobitic population die-offs, and possibly one extinction, have been documented. 
Investigators have attributed mass die-offs to several causes, including'naturally 
occurring low oxygen events, the intrusion of cold surface water or saline water into 
spring caves, and pollution by herbicides. Evidence suggests that the Squirrel Chimney 
Cave Shrimp (Palaemonetes cummingi), federally listed as Threatened, may be extinct, due 
to predation by the troglophilic Florida Spring Chub (Notropis harperi), which appears to 
have recently colonized the only site known to have harbored the shrimp. Examples of 
specific threats to other species are known. Man-induced erosion will soon seal the cave 
entrance where the only known population of the Putnam County Cave Crayfish (Procambarus
morhsi) is found, with unknown consequences. The entire ranges of the Orlando Cave Crayfish
(Procambarus acherontis) and the Miami Cave Crayfish (Procambarus millen) lie within the 
heavily urbanized Orlando and Miami areas, regions at risk of groundwater pollution, and 
in the lafter case, salt water intrusion. And, the entire population of the Orange Lake 
Cave Crayfish (Procambarus franzi), which is dependent on a continuing supply of bat guana, 
exists in one unprotected cave.  Biological studies of spring and cave fauna have formerly, 
and naturally, focused on species descriptions, taxonomy and evolutionary relationships, 
with studies on ecology, critical environmental factors and susceptibility to pollutants 
lagging behind. However, ecological information is accumulating Faunal surveys have 
established species assemblages and ranges, and correlated certain species with cave 
trophic status (food availability), a factor which can be influenced by human cultural 
activities.  Several population surveys and mark and recapture studies, as well as 
long-term records of observations by a few diving biologists, have provided information on 
certain aspects of troglobite life history and habitat requirements as well as species 
interactions. Recent bacteriological studies have begun to describe the bacterial ecology 
of aquatic caves, and a project is now underway to determine if chemosynthetic bacteria 
power food chains in certain caves. Dissolved oxygen concentrations, a critical habitat 
factor, have been measured in a few aquatic caves, and critical oxygen tensions have been
established in the lab for three species of troglobitic crayfish, defining the lower limits 
of dissolved oxygen they can tolerate. Continuing this work, an in situ study is underway 
in an aquatic cave, with mixed anaerobiclaerobic conditions, which will attempt to define 
the lowest levels of dissolved oxygen required for long term survival of cave life.  More 
information is needed to asses possible threats to Florida's aquatic spring and cave fauna. 
The rising nitrate concentrations at many springs attest that cultural activities in 
watersheds directly affect these environments. The toxicity of household, industrial and 
agricultural chemicals to which aquatic cave and spring fauna may be exposed are not known.
Activities which contribute organic matter to aquifers which are naturally low in 
dissolved oxygen may be especially dangerous to troglobitic animals.



FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PRESENCE OF FISHES IN THE "FISH BOWL" AT 
HOMOSASSA SPRINGS AND OTHER FLORIDA SPRINGS
BURGESS, G. H., NORDLIE, F. F., and ROBINS, R. H.  Florida Museum of Natural History;
Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 

One of the unique features of the Floridian ichthyofauna is the widespread intrusion of 
marine species into freshwater habitats. Such invasions often are associated with springs 
and spring runs. In this presentation the chemical and thermal attributes of various 
Florida springs are reviewed relative to their attraction to marine invaders as well as to 
native freshwater species. Among I st order Gulf coast springs, those with waters having 
the highest ion content, Homosassa and Crystal Springs, host the largest number of marine 
invaders. These invasions are facilitated by species-specific interactions of calcium
and chloride contents of the water that stabilize osmotic regulatory functions of invading 
marine species in dilute habitats. Upland environmental alterations leading to changes of 
natural flow regimes or the ionic content of spring discharges and human disturbance of 
spring boils and runs may result in reduction in ichthyofaunal biodiversity.


MANATEES AND FLORIDA SPRINGS: HABITAT FOR THE FUTURE
SMITH, K.N., FL. Fish and Wildlife Conserv. Com., 620 S. Meridian St., Tallahassee, FL 
32312 SmithK@.FWC.state.fl.us; MEZICH, R.R., (Same), MezichR@FWC.state.fl.us; FROHLICH,
R.K. (Same) Frohlir@FWC.state.fl.us 

The range of the Florida manatee (Trichechlzs manatus latirostris) is largely determined 
by water temperature. Peninsular Florida is considered the northern extent of the manatee's 
year-round range as they generally seek out waters warmer than 68 'F (20 'C). Because of 
their relatively low metabolic rate (25% less than would be expected for such an animal) 
and low thermal capacity manatees are susceptible to cold stress and can die if they are 
exposed to cold water (below 66 OF) for a prolonged period Many springs in Florida provide 
life-sustaining warm water refuges for manatees during the cold season.  While records of 
manatees using spring systems in Florida date back to the first seftlers in the state,
the number of manatees at many springs has dramatically increased in the last 30 years. 
The springs of Kings Bay (Crystal River) in Citrus County and Blue Spring in Volusia County 
provide examples of springs that support increasing manatee populations. Counts of manatees 
that winter at Crystal River have been increasing an average of 9.7% per year while counts 
at Blue Spring have increased an average of 7.6% annually since 1970. Currently, there are 
over 400 manatees that regularly winter at these two areas combined, which represents about 
15% of the entire Florida manatee population. Such changes may be in part related to 
increased abundance of aquatic vegetation around some springs and increasing manatee 
populations in some regions of Florida.  Smaller springs are also critical to the survival 
of smaller numbers of manatees throughout the state.  Manatee use of natural springs can be 
considered reliant or convenient, depending upon proximity to other sources of warm water, 
volume of discharged water, physical size of the discharge basin, latitude, and the 
relative difference between spring and ambient water temperatures. Manatee use of spring
systems is dependent upon a continuous, dependable supply of warm water, which naturally 
ranges from 71 -84 -F (22-29 -C). Source water is generally from the shallow or deep 
Floridan aquifer, the source of most of the drinking and industrial water used by 
Florida's human population. Withdrawal of groundwater from wells can reduce spring flow 
and thereby negatively affect warm water refuges that are critical to the manatee's 
survival In addition to water withdrawal, manatee use of natural springs may be affect by a
host of human use conflicts, toxic and nutrient contamination, and loss of foraging 
habitat in close proximity to springs.  Historically, protection of natural spring systems 
used by manatees has focused primarily on the management of human activities in the 
immediate spring area. Boating regulations and No-entry sanctuary areas have been 
established and shoreline use has been regulated However, little attention has been focused 
on the quantity and quality of the spring water as it relates to manatee protection.  
Protection of natural spring systems used by manatees relates primarily to the management 
of human groundwater withdrawal and waste disposal. The current challenge that natural 
resources managers face is to ensure long term reliability of the water quantity and 
quality on which manatees depend.  Maintenance of water volume flow mandated by the 
development of minimum flow criteria by State Water  Management Districts for all springs 
and rivers in Florida must be modeled using essential manatee needs as a base requirement. 
Minimum flow criteria developed for Blue Spring by the St. Johns River Water Management 
District provide models for future criteria based management plans for springs used by 
manatees as a thennal refuge.


FRESHWATER SNAILS AND FLORIDA SPRINGS. THEIR USE AS WATER QUALITY 
INDICATOR ORGANISMS.
THOMPSON, F. G., Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, 
FL 32611-7800, fgt@flmnh.ufl.edu.

Florida is inhabited by an abundant and diverse freshwater snail fauna, consisting of about 
115 species.  They are useful as water-quality indicator organisms. The species demonstrate 
four patterns of geographic distribution, which in turn reflect water quality tolerances. 
Species of all four groups may occur in a given spring, but only species of the last group 
are confined to springs.  Group-[ consists of species that have wide geographic ranges 
outside of the state, as well as within Florida. These species usually have a wide degree 
of water quality tolerance. They may be found in permanent or temporary water bodies. 
Examples are the banded mysterysnail (Viviparus georgianus), the ovate campeloma (Campeloma 
geniculum), the marsh rams-horn (Planorbella trivolvis) and the ghost rams-horn 
(Biornphalaria havanensis).  Group-2 species occur widely and primarily in Florida, but 
they may occur also in areas immediately adjacent to Florida. These are species that 
inhabit permanent bodies of relatively clean water. Examples are the Florida Applesnail 
(Pomacea paludosa), the rasp elimia (Elimia floridensis) and the alligator siltsnail 
(Notogillia wetherbyi).  Group-3 species have restricted ranges within Florida. They may 
occur within a single drainage system, such as the St. Johns River, or they may occur in 
two of more system, such as the Suwannee River and the Withlacoochee River. These snails 
require relatively clean and undisturbed water systems.  Examples are the conical siltsnail 
(Spilochlamys conica), the armored siltsnail (Spilochlamys graves) and the knobby elimia 
(Elimia atheami).  Group-4 species have very localized distributions. Usually they are 
confined to single springs such as Blue Springs, Volusia County or clusters of springs such 
as Saniando Springs, Orange co. These snails require pristine water quality, and they 
virtually are intolerant to ecological disturbances. Their total geographic distributions 
may be restricted to within a few meters of the mouth of a spring. In Florida there are 
twenty species in this group. All belong to the family Hydrobiidae. They are referred to 
as springsnails or siltsnails.

Protecting Florida's Springs - Challenges and Opportunities,
Short Term Action and Long Term Solutions

WHY FLORIDA'S GROUNDWATER IS SO VULNERABLE
UPCHURCH, S. B., Ph.D., P.G.

Environmental Resources Management, Inc., 3913 Riga Boulevard, Tampa, Florida 33619
Florida groundwater exhibits a wide range of vulnerability. The problems that have 
developed over the last two decades with respect to nutrient enrichment of groundwater and 
discharge of this water through springs are a result of many factors, including soils 
conducive to leaching of nutrients and karstic groundwater flow systems that accelerate 
flow to springs and minimize dilution and dispersion of chemical constituents. Therefore, 
the vulnerability of Florida's aquifers to nutrient enrichment is a result of physical and 
chemical conditions that result in regional nutrient enrichment of groundwater.  Processes 
that will be discussed in this talk include (1) chemical conditions that cause nitrate
enrichment in well drained soils with deep water table conditions and (2) physical 
conditions that enhance aquifer vulnerability. Some of the recent attempts to quantify 
aquifer vulnerability and delineate the extent of nutrient enrichment of groundwater will 
be discussed.

DOING OUR PART AT HOME-FLORIDA YARDS & NEIGHBORHOODS: CONSERVING 
AND PRESERVING NATURAL RESOURCES ONE YARD AT A TIME
KELLY-BAGAZO, C. A., Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, 
cake@ifas.ufl.edu 

The Florida Yards & Neighborhoods (FY&N) program is an educational outreach program that 
was developed to help protect Florida's natural resources through environmentally friendly 
landscaping and lawn care maintenance practices. This program incorporates and empowers 
targeted stakeholders to form partnerships to help reduce pollution, and enhance their 
environment by improving their landscaping practices. The FY&N program compels landscaping 
and its subsequent maintenance to conserve precious water resources, reduce nonpoint source 
pollution, create aesthetically-pleasing designs, save time, energy and money, and to be 
environmentally sustainable.  There are approximately 14.5 million people in Florida, 41 
million tourists visit each year and there are approximately 700 new residents every day! 
About 60% of these new residents are not native  Floridians and quite often have no 
experience with the type of climatic and environmental factors that exist here with regard 
to natural resources and sustainable landscaping. Florida has some very unique, yet 
limited, natural resources; as urbanization and population growth continue to increase, 
these resources are in imminent danger of being severely altered and possible destroyed 
from their impact.  The FY&N program takes a holistic systems approach with regard to 
Environmental Landscape Management (ELM) and public environmental education. Currently, 
there are nine main practices that are exemplified by the FY&N program; Right Plant, Right 
Place; Water Efficiently, Fertilize Appropriately, Use Pesticides Responsibly, Reduce 
Stormwater Runoff, Protect the Waterfront, Provide for Wildlife, Mulch and Recycle. 
Participants of the outreach activities can be Florida residents and non-residents, 
landscape, turf and nursery industry personnel, water resource managers, builders and 
developers, landscape architects and designers, policy makers and youth.  Educational 
material and marketing modules that are specific to each stakeholder group are developed 
with their unique requirements in mind, and program delivery is achieved through a variety 
of teach methods (i.e., presentations, one-on-one consultations, seminars and classes, 
clinics and workshops, UF bulletins and publications, website.) The main objective with 
regard to educational material is to have them easily accessible in complete modules that 
will encourage utilization by all program participants. Success of the program can be 
partial attributed to the 'buy-in' effect where participants are encouraged to take 
responsibility for their own lawn care practices in order to conserve and preserve 
Florida's natural resources. A 'Certified Florida Yard" certification process is available 
to program participants who which to have their landscape certified as 'Florida-friendly" 
or 'environmentally friendy. It the landscape is determined to meet all of the 
certification requirements a certificate is awarded to the participant. Some counties also 
award a yard sign that can be displayed in the landscape designating it as a 'Certified 
Florida Yard".  Since the statewide consolidation of FYN efforts in 1997, Florida Yards 
and Neighborhoods has reached thousands of Floridians - over 400,000 contacts were made in 
1999 alone. FYN training made major advancements in convincing and teaching residents to 
landscape in an environmentally friendly manner. Specific examples of program 
accomplishments include: After FYN training, almost 84% knew to property water plants in 
evening or early morning, 67% learned to water the lawn separately from beds, and 65% 
applied the correct amount of Y2 to 3/4 inch of water per irrigation. FYN programs 
dramatically increased participants' use of IPM practices such as scouting the yard for 
problems (used by 74% of the audience after training), identifying pest problems before 
spraying (66% of participants), and choosing the least harmful pesticide (67% of the 
audience). Similarly, the FYN program demonstrated how too much fertilizer can be wasteful 
as well as damage the environment. After FYN training, almost 75% of residents used slow 
release fertilizers and 54% began fertilizing only when needed. Almost 68% of FYN-trained 
residents developed low maintenance landscapes that generated less yard waste than 
traditional landscapes. Over 53% of this group began using less fertilizer to reduce
the amount of pruning and mowing, thereby reducing the volume of yard waste potentially 
generated.  FYN training convinced 73% of residents to leave grass clippings on the lawn 
to be recycled naturally.

STORMWATER MANAGEMENT IN SENSITIVE KARST AREAS
MIRACLE, D., PE, St. Johns River Water Management District, Palatka, FL

Throughout the majority of the St. Johns River Water Management District, the highly 
porous limestone which contains the Florida aquifer, the drinking water source for most of 
the population in the District and the source of water for springs, is overlain by tens to 
hundreds of feet of sands, clays, and other material.  This material acts as a buffer, 
isolating the Floridan aquifer from surface pollutants. However, in certain 'karst" areas 
of the District, the limestone that contains the Floridan aquifer exists at, or near, the 
land surface. 'Karst' is a geologic term used to describe areas where sinkhole formation 
is common and landscapes are formed by the solution of limestone.  The District first 
began regulating stormwater discharges in the 1980s because of the water quantity 
(flooding) and quality impacts of stormwater runoff from urban development. This rule 
required new development to construct stormwater treatment systems (i.e., retention basins, 
detention ponds) designed to remove stormwater pollutants. The most common system utilized 
in karst areas is dry retention basins where the stormwater is treated by percolating the 
runoff into the ground beneath the basin. Passing the runoff through the soil allows for 
filtration, adsorption, and biological removal of contaminants.  After a few years, it 
became apparent that special considerations needed to be given when siting stormwater 
systems in karst areas of the District due to the formation of solution pipes sinkholes in 
the bottom of some of the stormwater basins. When a solution pipe forms it creates a 
direct connection from bottom of the stormwater basin to the aquifer below. Bypassing the 
soil above the aquifer increases the potential for inadequately treated runoff entering 
the aquifer. Therefore, in 1991 the District adopted more stringent criteria within the 
sensitive karst areas of western Alachua and Marion counties to provide more protection to 
groundwater resources.  This presentation will cover our experiences in permitting new 
development in sensitive karst areas, the rational behind the more stringent criteria, and 
possible ways to improve those efforts.


AGRICULTURE: COOPERATION AND INNOVATION
MERRITT, A.C., Gold Kist Inc.

As a corporate citizen of Suwannee County, Florida, as a signatory of the Suwannee River 
Basin Nutrient Basin Working Group agreement, and as a signatory to the National Chicken 
Council' s Environmental Framework and Implementation Strategy for Poultry Operations Gold 
Kist Inc. has a keen interest in the protection of the water resources of North Florida. 
This presentation gives an overview of Gold Kist Inc., its economic contribution in 
Florida, its position and programs regarding environmental stewardship throughout its 
operations with particular detail to the operation near Live Oak. It closes with a 
discussion ofthe benefits of the State of Florida's Suwannee River Basin initiative and 
why this voluntary approach will likely be more successful in protecting water resources 
than the mandatory approaches of other states.


"GINNIE SPRINGS GROUP" AQUIFER PROTECTION - A RECOMMENDATION FOR 
CHANGE
McCORD, B. M., Danone International Brands, Inc., 7100 NE County Road 340, High Springs, 
FL, 32643, brian_mccord@DIBNA.com

Danone International Brands, Inc. boftles Natural Spring Water from Ginnie and Dogwood 
Springs located six miles west of High Springs, Florida. The bottled water is sold in a 
variety of convenience sizes and is distributed within the Southeastern United States.
Ginnie and Dogwood springs are part of a series of springs herein called the 'Ginnie 
Springs Group", a group of several springs located along a two-mile stretch of the Santa 
Fe River bordering Columbia, Alachua and Gilchrist Counties. The Santa Fe River acts as a 
drain within this region, channeling water from northern and southern groundwater recharge 
areas west to the Suwannee River. The recharge area for the springs is located in 
northwestern Alachua and northeastern Gilchrist counties.  Danone International Brands has 
taken a proactive approach to studying the 'Ginnie Springs Group Aquifer" and formulating 
recommendations to protect the water quality. A Phase 1 Aquifer Protection evaluation was 
completed and included; delineation of the recharge area, gathering of geologic and
hydrogeologic data and construction of a geographical information system file, review of 
regulatory standards and authority, and identification of potential threats to the aquifer.
Additional investigations will include further refinement of the hydrogeologic regime 
including field investigations and long term monitoring. Recommendations presented are 
based on the scientific understanding of the aquifer dynamics and current, as well as, 
potential land use development.



Land Use Planning

A BIGGER PICTURE
Starnes, D.W., Professor Emeritus, University of Florida


SPRING BASIN WORKING GROUPS: A COLLABORATIVE PROTECTION PROCESS
STEVENSON, J. A., Department of Environmental Protection, 3900 Commonwealth Blvd., MS 
140, Tallahassee, FL. 32399-3000, James.Stevenson@dep.state.fl.us

In order to protect the water quality and natural discharge of a Florida spring, we must 
know its recharge area, the source of its water. Knowledge of the recharge area (basin) 
enables the identification of land uses that will degrade water quality or reduce discharge. 
This information is needed by local governments to guide land use planning to protect the 
most vulnerable portions of the recharge area from contamination.
Federal, state and localregulatory and natural resource agencies have information about 
spring basins but seldom does any agency understand the whole basin nor can a single 
agency provide adequate protection.
Spring basin working groups are composed of all agencies that have information or 
responsibilities that can contribute to the protection of groundwater flowing to springs. 
Other stakeholders include private landowners, corporations, farmers, universities, 
environmental and recreational organizations and citizens. Through this collaborative 
process, information is shared to understand the hydrology of the basin, identify threats 
and develop solutions for protection. Cooperating agencies also share resources to 
accomplish monitoring and research and expedite restoration and protection activities. 
Agency coordination avoids duplication of efforts which would waste staff time and funding. 
Citizen involvement is critical for success; therefore, the working group must be 
community-based.  AJI of the ecosystem management tools are used to further the protection 
effort including education, land use planning, research, monitoring, regulation, 
enforcement, and land acquisition.  There have been significant accomplishments. Using 
cave diver maps of the Wakulla Springs cave system, the Wakulla Springs Water Quality 
Working Group was able to convince the Wakulla County Commission to approve a Wakulla 
Springs Protection Ordinance which regulates land uses above the cave system in order to 
protect water quality. The lchetucknee Springs Water Quality Working Group has influenced 
the strengthening of the Columbia County Comprehensive Plan to protect the waters flowing 
to the springs. Other lchetucknee protection activities include dye trace studies, cave 
diver exploration, a nationally televised program on the working group protection efforts, 
and a comprehensive educational program in the local community and schools.  Spring basin 
working groups have also been formed and are carrying out this process for Wekiwa, Silver 
and Santa Fe Springs. Working groups are needed for several other springs.